Resources and Life Forces: Addressing Maori and First Nations claims about the spiritual value of lands and waterways

Abstract

Instances of indigenous peoples making claims about the treatment of lands and waterways on spiritual grounds have become increasingly visible in settler societies, as has the requirement that these be adequately addressed. This thesis considers case studies in which such claims have been made by Maori and First Nations peoples. Cases in New Zealand concern the powerful and intensively used Waikato River and the remote and untouched Mokihinui River. Cases in Canada concern the remote alpine headwaters and forests of Northern British Columbia and the few remaining wild places of Greater Vancouver. The indigenous peoples conceive of these lands and waterways as sacred; as living beings and relatives; as containing life forces; and as part of a great reciprocal relationship of physical, spiritual and cultural nourishment and protection. They regard themselves as a part of this relationship with an obligation to participate appropriately. Current and proposed agriculture, forestry, energy, and mining enterprises threaten the lands and waterways and conflict with the indigenous values - giving rise to the indigenous claims. This thesis analyses the discourses employed by those making, hearing and offering settlement for these claims. This thesis finds that settler societies attempt to address such claims and that some of the threatened lands and waterways are secured. However, indigenous concerns are framed and reframed according to dominant structures and discourses. It observes that between an initial claim and any eventual settlement the spiritual aspect can be excluded, marginalised, diluted or distorted, while aspects that conform to dominant structures and discourses can be introduced or magnified. A claim about 'desecration' can result in a settlement about 'economic development'. Indigenous concerns are misrepresented, misrecognised and missatisfied; lands and waterways remain treated solely as resources; indigenous peoples are further colonised, and any question of religious or spiritual freedom remains unaddressed. This thesis concludes that indigenous spiritual claims may be more adequately and justly addressed through a strategic combination of engagement with some aspects of the available institutional processes and outcomes and engagement in indigenous approaches that are themselves spiritually imbued and closely connected to the lands and waterways.