Paternal depression during pregnancy and after childbirth: evidence from Growing Up in New Zealand

Abstract

Background: There is little evidence on depression among men whose partners are pregnant or have recently given birth. Methods: An ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of 3528 men living in New Zealand completed interviews during their partner's pregnancy and nine months after the birth of their child. Depression symptoms were measured using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Rates of depression (defined as EPDS>12 and PHQ-9>9) and associations with a range of paternal and maternal characteristics were explored using logistic regression. Results: Antenatal paternal depression, which affected 2.3% of fathers, was associated with paternal perceived stress (OR=1.4, 95%CI 1.3 to 1.5) and fair to poor paternal health (OR=2, 95%CI 1.1 to 3.5) during their partner's pregnancy. Postnatal paternal depression affected 4.3% of fathers and was associated with paternal perceived stress in pregnancy (OR=1.12, 95%CI 1.1 to 1.2), relationship status at nine months after childbirth (OR=5.6, 95%CI 2 to 15.7), fair to poor paternal health at nine months (OR=3.3, 95%CI 2 to 5.1), employment status at nine months (OR=1.8, 95%CI 1.1 to 3.1) and a past history of depression (OR=2.8, 95%CI 1.7 to 4.7). Conclusions: Expectant fathers are at risk of depression if they feel stressed or are in poor health. In this study, rates of depression were higher during the postpartum period and were associated with adverse social and relationship factors. Identifying who is most at-risk of paternal depression and when will help inform interventions to help men and their families.