Abstract:
Background: There is a growing interest in researching prosocial behaviour in children, as a means to better understand and promote positive behaviours to improve developmental outcomes. Currently only limited research exists on the developmental trajectory of prosocial behaviour across early childhood. Moreover, the relationship between prosocial behaviour and anxiety is under researched. This thesis investigated the development and stability of prosocial behaviour throughout early childhood, factors related to these behaviours, and the relationship between these factors and prosocial stability to the emergence of anxiety symptoms in childhood.
Aim: The aim of this research was, first, to examine the levels of stability and change in prosocial behaviour across ages 2, 4 and 8 years. Second, this research investigated the predictors and correlates of prosocial behaviour at age 8, and whether they are also associated with prosocial stability. Finally, this research examined whether the variables that are associated with prosocial behaviour are also associated with anxiety symptoms at age 8, and whether prosocial stability predicts anxiety.
Methods: This study analysed data from 6965 children and their parents involved in the Growing Up in New Zealand longitudinal birth cohort. Information about mother’s socio- demographic profile, health characteristics, parenting practices, children’s development, and additional environmental factors were collected at multiple timepoints from pregnancy up to age
8. Children’s prosocial behaviour was measured using the parent-rated Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). And child anxiety symptoms were measured using PROMIS Anxiety short-form questionnaire. Prosocial scores were categorized (high stable prosocial stability, moderate prosocial stability, somewhat-low prosocial stability, consistently low prosocial stability) to evaluate persistence and change in behaviour over time. Chi-square analyses and
ANOVAs were used to determine the association between sociodemographic and birth variables, and prosocial stability profiles. HMRs were used to assess which factors were associated with prosocial behaviour, and separately with anxiety symptoms.
Results: Crosstabulations revealed that overall, most children’s prosocial behaviour increased with age. Children with high stable prosocial behaviour were more likely to be female, from a planned pregnancy, first-born, living rurally, with mothers of European ethnicity, who were older, more educated, and living in less-deprived neighbourhoods. Two hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that prosocial behaviour was associated with the following factors: (i) acetaminophen use; postnatal depression symptoms; external and family support; gender; parity; behavioural concerns; sleep; socio-emotional concerns; ASD; (ii) parental self- efficacy; consistency; irritability/harshness; satisfaction; family support; gender; parity. A third hierarchical multiple regression revealed that anxiety symptoms were associated with the following factors: acetaminophen use; maternal depression symptoms; BMI; smoke exposure; maternal education; ethnicity; parenting self-efficacy; irritability/harshness; sleep; hearing concerns; ASD. Finally, stable prosocial behaviour was not significantly associated with anxiety symptoms, after accounting for other factors.
Conclusion: Prosocial behaviour typically increases across early childhood, with most children exhibiting high levels of prosocial behaviour by age 8, although behavioural variability is common. Shared risk and protective factors for prosocial behaviour and anxiety included parental self-efficacy, low irritability/harshness, maternal depression, acetaminophen use during pregnancy, and child diagnosis of ASD or sleep problems. This knowledge is valuable for guiding prevention and intervention efforts.